Shaking hands with a non-mahram Muslim woman is absolutely impermissible; because touching her is greater than looking at her, while Allah has forbidden looking at her. It has been narrated from the Prophet, peace and blessings of Allah be upon him and his family, that he said: «إِنِّي لَا أُصَافِحُ النِّسَاءَ»[1]; “I do not shake hands with women.” Thus, his hand never touched a woman’s hand except for a woman he owned[2]. It has been narrated that it is permissible to do so if it is done through a barrier, such as gloves, and there is no squeezing or fear of falling into sin; because it is not touching her, but rather touching the barrier; as it has been narrated from Ibrahim al-Nakha‘i (d. 96 AH) that he said: «كَانَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَآلِهِ وَسَلَّمَ يُصَافِحُ النِّسَاءَ وَعَلَى يَدِهِ ثَوْبٌ»[3]; “The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings of Allah be upon him and his family, shook hands with women while he had a piece of clothing over his hand,” and from Qais ibn Abi Hazim (d. 98 AH) that he said: «إِنَّ النِّسْوَةَ لَمَّا جِئْنَ يُبَايِعْنَ النَّبِيَّ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَآلِهِ وَسَلَّمَ، بَسَطَ رِدَاءَهُ فَوْقَ يَدِهِ، فَبَايَعَهُنَّ مِنْ وَرَاءِ الرِّدَاءِ»[4]; “When women came to pledge allegiance to the Prophet, peace and blessings of Allah be upon him and his family, he spread his cloak over his hand and took their pledge of allegiance from over the cloak,” and from al-Sha‘bi (d. 104 AH) that he said: «إِنَّ النَّبِيَّ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَآلِهِ وَسَلَّمَ حِينَ بَايَعَ النِّسَاءَ وَضَعَ عَلَى يَدِهِ بُرْدًا قَطَرِيًّا، فَبَايَعَهُنَّ»[5]; “When the Prophet, peace and blessings of Allah be upon him and his family, took the pledge of allegiance from women, he placed a Qatari piece of clothing over his hand and then took their pledge of allegiance,” and from Tariq al-Taymi that he said: «جِئْتُ رَسُولَ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَآلِهِ وَسَلَّمَ وَهُوَ قَاعِدٌ فِي الشَّمْسِ، وَعَلَيْهِ ثَوْبٌ أَصْفَرُ قَدْ قَنَّعَ بِهِ رَأْسَهُ، فَلَمَّا قَامَ انْتَهَى إِلَى بَعْضِ الْحُجَرِ، فَإِذَا سِتُّ نِسْوَةٍ، فَسَلَّمَ عَلَيْهِنَّ، وَبَايَعَهُنَّ وَعَلَى يَدِهِ ثَوْبٌ أَصْفَرُ»[6]; “I came to the Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings of Allah be upon him and his family, while he was sitting in the sun, wearing a yellow garment with which he had covered his head. Then he stood up and went toward one of the rooms where there were six women. Then he greeted them and took their pledge of allegiance while a yellow piece of clothing was over his hand.” It has been narrated from Sa‘idah and Aimanah, the sisters of Muhammad ibn Abi Umair, that they said: «دَخَلْنَا عَلَى أَبِي عَبْدِ اللَّهِ -يَعْنِي جَعْفَرَ بْنَ مُحَمَّدٍ- عَلَيْهِ السَّلَامُ، فَقُلْنَا: تَعُودُ الْمَرْأَةُ أَخَاهَا فِي اللَّهِ؟ قَالَ: نَعَمْ، قُلْنَا: فَتُصَافِحُهُ؟ قَالَ: نَعَمْ مِنْ وَرَاءِ ثَوْبٍ، كَانَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَآلِهِ وَسَلَّمَ لَبِسَ الصُّوفَ يَوْمَ بَايَعَ النِّسَاءَ، فَكَانَتْ يَدُهُ فِي كُمِّهِ، وَهُنَّ يَمْسَحْنَ أَيْدِيَهُنَّ عَلَيْهِ»[7]; “We entered upon Abu Abdullah, meaning Ja‘far ibn Muhammad, peace be upon him. Then we said: ‘Can a woman visit her brother in faith?’ He said: ‘Yes.’ We said: ‘Can she shake hands with him?’ He said: ‘Yes, from over a piece of clothing. The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings of Allah be upon him and his family, wore a woolen garment on the day he took the pledge of allegiance from women. His hand was in his sleeve, and they rubbed their hands over his sleeve.’” It has been narrated from Abu Basir that he said: «قُلْتُ لِأَبِي عَبْدِ اللَّهِ عَلَيْهِ السَّلَامُ: هَلْ يُصَافِحُ الرَّجُلُ الْمَرْأَةَ لَيْسَتْ بِذِي مَحْرَمٍ؟ فَقَالَ: لَا، إِلَّا مِنْ وَرَاءِ الثَّوْبِ»[8]; “I said to Abu Abdullah, peace be upon him: ‘Can a man shake hands with a woman who is not his mahram?’ He said: ‘No, except from over a piece of clothing,’” and from Sama‘ah ibn Mihran that he said: «سَأَلْتُ أَبَا عَبْدِ اللَّهِ عَلَيْهِ السَّلَامُ عَنْ مُصَافَحَةِ الرَّجُلِ الْمَرْأَةَ، قَالَ: لَا يَحِلُّ لِلرَّجُلِ أَنْ يُصَافِحَ الْمَرْأَةَ إِلَّا امْرَأَةً يَحْرُمُ عَلَيْهِ أَنْ يَتَزَوَّجَهَا، أُخْتٌ أَوْ بِنْتٌ أَوْ عَمَّةٌ أَوْ خَالَةٌ أَوِ ابْنَةُ أُخْتٍ أَوْ نَحْوُهَا، فَأَمَّا الْمَرْأَةُ الَّتِي يَحِلُّ لَهُ أَنْ يَتَزَوَّجَهَا فَلَا يُصَافِحْهَا، إِلَّا مِنْ وَرَاءِ الثَّوْبِ، وَلَا يَغْمِزْ كَفَّهَا»[9]; “I asked Abu Abdullah, meaning Ja‘far ibn Muhammad, peace be upon him, about a man shaking hands with a woman. He said: ‘It is not lawful for a man to shake hands with a woman, except for a woman whose marriage to him is forbidden, meaning his sister, daughter, paternal aunt, maternal aunt, the daughter of his sister, or the like. As for a woman whose marriage to him is lawful, he should not shake hands with her except from over a piece of clothing, and he should not squeeze her hand.’” It has been narrated from Sawda’, the daughter of Asim, that she said: «أَتَيْتُ رَسُولَ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَآلِهِ وَسَلَّمَ أُبَايِعُهُ، فَقَالَ: اخْتَضِبِي، فَاخْتَضَبْتُ، ثُمَّ جِئْتُ فَبَايَعْتُهُ»[10]; “I came to the Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings of Allah be upon him and his family, to pledge allegiance to him. He said: ‘Dye your hand.’ So I dyed my hand. Then I came and pledged allegiance to him.” However, this narration is odd and not authentic; because dye is not a barrier, and therefore, performing wudu with it is valid. As for what has been narrated from Anas ibn Malik, who said: «إِنْ كَانَتِ الْأَمَةُ مِنْ إِمَاءِ أَهْلِ الْمَدِينَةِ لَتَأْخُذُ بِيَدِ رَسُولِ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَآلِهِ وَسَلَّمَ، فَتَنْطَلِقُ بِهِ حَيْثُ شَاءَتْ»[11]; “One of the slave women of Medina would take the hand of the Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings of Allah be upon him and his family, and lead him wherever she wished,” it does not contradict the previous narrations; because a slave woman was not like a free woman, and she might have taken him by his garment. In another narration, the word «الْوَلِيدَةِ»; “al-Walidah” has been stated[12], which refers to a girl who has not reached puberty; perhaps this narration is more authentic. Also, it is more precautionary to avoid shaking hands with non-Muslim women from the People of the Book, even though it may be permissible if there is no fear of falling into sin; because the evidence prohibiting shaking hands is directed toward Muslim women, and there is no prohibition regarding disbelieving women. Therefore, it is permissible to look at them if there is no fear of falling into sin; as it has been narrated from the Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings of Allah be upon him and his family, that he said: «لَا حُرْمَةَ لِنِسَاءِ أَهْلِ الذِّمَّةِ أَنْ يُنْظَرَ إِلَى شُعُورِهِنَّ وَأَيْدِيهِنَّ»[13]; “There is no prohibition on looking at the hair and hands of the women of Ahl al-Dhimmah,” and in another narration: «لَيْسَ لِنِسَاءِ أَهْلِ الذِّمَّةِ حُرْمَةٌ، لَا بَأْسَ بِالنَّظَرِ إِلَيْهِنَّ مَا لَمْ يَتَعَمَّدْ ذَلِكَ»[14]; “There is no prohibition regarding the women of Ahl al-Dhimmah. There is nothing wrong with looking at them as long as it is not intentional,” meaning it should not be done with the intention of pleasure, and it has been narrated from Ali ibn Abi Talib, peace be upon him, that he said: «لَا بَأْسَ بِالنَّظَرِ إِلَى رُؤُوسِ نِسَاءِ أَهْلِ الذِّمَّةِ»[15]; “There is nothing wrong with looking at the hair of the women of Ahl al-Dhimmah,” and from Ja‘far ibn Muhammad, peace be upon them, that he said: «لَا بَأْسَ بِالنَّظَرِ إِلَى رُؤُوسِ أَهْلِ التِّهَامَةِ وَالْأَعْرَابِ وَأَهْلِ السَّوَادِ وَالْعُلُوجِ، لِأَنَّهُمْ إِذَا نُهُوا لَا يَنْتَهُونَ، وَالْمَجْنُونَةِ وَالْمَغْلُوبَةِ عَلَى عَقْلِهَا، وَلَا بَأْسَ بِالنَّظَرِ إِلَى شَعْرِهَا وَجَسَدِهَا مَا لَمْ يَتَعَمَّدْ ذَلِكَ»[16]; “There is nothing wrong with looking at the hair of women from the Tihamah (region), Bedouins, villagers, and those with no religion; because if they are prohibited, they will not refrain. The same applies to a mad woman and a woman who has lost her mind; there is nothing wrong with looking at their hair and bodies as long as it is not intentional,” meaning it should not be done with the intention of pleasure; because its permissibility, when not done intentionally, is not specific to these categories. This is also the view of Sufyan al-Thawri in what has been quoted from him[17], where he said: «لَا بَأْسَ بِالنَّظَرِ إِلَى زِينَةِ نِسَاءِ أَهْلِ الذِّمَّةِ، إِنَّمَا يُنْهَى عَنْ ذَلِكَ لِخَوْفِ الْفِتْنَةِ، لَا لِحُرْمَتِهِنَّ»; “There is nothing wrong with looking at the adornment of the women of Ahl al-Dhimmah; because it has been prohibited only due to the fear of falling into temptation, not due to their sanctity,” and he quoted the words of Allah Almighty as evidence, where He has said: ﴿وَنِسَاءِ الْمُؤْمِنِينَ﴾[18]; “And the women of Muslims.” Also, it has been narrated from Ja‘far ibn Muhammad, peace be upon them, that he said: «إِنَّمَا كُرِهَ النَّظَرُ إِلَى عَوْرَةِ الْمُسْلِمِ، فَأَمَّا النَّظَرُ إِلَى عَوْرَةِ مَنْ لَيْسَ بِمُسْلِمٍ مِثْلُ النَّظَرِ إِلَى عَوْرَةِ الْحِمَارِ»[19]; “Only looking at the private parts of a Muslim is detested. As for looking at the private parts of a non-Muslim, it is like looking at the private parts of a donkey,” meaning it is permissible if there is no fear of falling into sin; because they ﴿كَالْأَنْعَامِ بَلْ هُمْ أَضَلُّ ۚ أُولَئِكَ هُمُ الْغَافِلُونَ﴾[20]; “are like cattle, but rather they are more astray. They are the heedless.” If a Muslim man fears that refusing to shake hands with non-Muslim women from the People of the Book could cause him significant harm, as sometimes happens in some non-Islamic countries, then there is no sin upon him for shaking hands with them if there is no fear of falling into sin; because this is a form of taqiyyah by which he repels hardship, and Allah Almighty has said: ﴿إِلَّا أَنْ تَتَّقُوا مِنْهُمْ تُقَاةً﴾[21]; “Unless you practice taqiyyah against them,” and said: ﴿مَا يُرِيدُ اللَّهُ لِيَجْعَلَ عَلَيْكُمْ مِنْ حَرَجٍ﴾[22]; “Allah does not want to lay upon you any hardship,” and whoever intends evil, ﴿فَإِنَّ اللَّهَ بِهِ عَلِيمٌ﴾[23]; “then indeed, Allah is fully aware of it.”